Introduction White blood cells (WBCs), also known as leukocytes, are the unsung heroes of the human body, tirelessly working behind the scenes to protect us from a myriad of threats. These remarkable cells are the cornerstone of the immune system, acting as the body's primary defense mechanism against infections, diseases,…
Introduction Mammals are one of the most diverse and fascinating groups of animals on Earth. From the tiny bumblebee bat to the gigantic blue whale, mammals have evolved to occupy nearly every ecosystem on the planet. They are warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by their ability to produce milk, grow hair or…
Introduction The rhinoceros, commonly known as a rhino, is one of the most fascinating and powerful creatures in the animal kingdom. These prehistoric-looking mammals have roamed the Earth for millions of years, evolving into the five unique species we see today. With their massive size, thick armor-like skin, and signature…
Introduction The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is the largest animal to have ever lived on Earth. With its incredible size, fascinating biology, and vital role in marine ecosystems, this ocean giant has captured the imagination of scientists, conservationists, and the general public alike. Let’s explore the life, habitat, behavior, and…
Introduction Seahorses are one of the ocean’s most intriguing and unique creatures, capturing the imagination of marine enthusiasts, scientists, and artists alike. Belonging to the genus Hippocampus (a name derived from Greek words meaning "horse" and "sea monster"), these small, fish-like animals are renowned for their peculiar appearance, fascinating behaviors,…
Introduction WHAT ARE CELLS?: Cells are the fundamental units of life, forming the building blocks of all living organisms. They serve as the smallest structural and functional entities capable of sustaining life. From single-celled microorganisms to complex multicellular organisms, cells are integral to the existence of life on Earth. Understanding…
Introduction - Octopus The octopus, one of the ocean's most enigmatic and fascinating creatures, has captured the imagination of humans for centuries. Known for its remarkable intelligence, unparalleled adaptability, and alien-like appearance, the octopus stands out as a marvel of marine biology. These cephalopods belong to the mollusk family but…
Butterfly Butterflies are some of the most mesmerizing and celebrated creatures in the animal kingdom. With their delicate, colorful wings and graceful flight, they have captured the imaginations of poets, scientists, and nature lovers for centuries. Found on every continent except Antarctica, butterflies are not only symbols of transformation and…
Introduction Zebras are one of nature’s most fascinating and visually striking creatures, instantly recognizable by their bold black-and-white stripes. These captivating animals belong to the family Equidae, making them close relatives of horses and donkeys. Native to Africa, zebras are known for their adaptability to various habitats, from grassy savannas…
Introduction Sexual selection is one of nature's most captivating processes. From the peacock’s dazzling feathers to the loud calls of howler monkeys, many traits in the animal kingdom seem designed for show rather than survival. But these traits often have a deeper evolutionary significance, driven by the competition for mates…
Introduction Liver flukes, a group of flatworm parasites, might not be a household name, but they’re a big deal in the worlds of health and agriculture. These parasites target the liver and bile ducts of mammals—including humans—and cause problems ranging from mild discomfort to life-threatening diseases. They also hit the…
Nanoparticles are tiny materials that exist on a scale of 1 to 100 nanometers. To put this into perspective, a nanometer is one-billionth of a meter, making of these particles incredibly small and giving them unique properties compared to bulk materials. These materials are at the forefront of research and…
Introduction The fossil of ARCHAEOPTERYX is of utmost significance, serving as a critical link in the evolutionary chain. Its discovery has shed light on the gradual progression of biological changes and successfully bridged the gap between major animal lineages. Perhaps the most important fossil find in palaeontology, often called the…
Introduction : PANCREATIC GLAND The pancreas is a vital organ located in the abdomen, behind the stomach, that plays an essential role in both digestive and endocrine processes. It serves two primary functions: producing digestive enzymes that assist in breaking down food in the small intestine and secreting hormones that…
Introduction SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY: Signal transduction refers to the process by which a cell converts an external signal (such as a molecule or environmental change) into a functional response. This intricate biological mechanism allows cells to communicate with each other and respond to changes in their environment. Signal transduction pathways…
Introduction The Venus Flower Basket (scientifically known as Euplectella aspergillum) is one of the most intriguing and beautiful creatures inhabiting the ocean's deep-sea environments. While its appearance is striking and delicate, the creature's role in the marine ecosystem, as well as its intriguing biological processes, make it a subject of…
Introduction Breathing and respiration are fundamental physiological processes that enable life to exist on Earth. Whether you're a human, a bird, a fish, or even a microbe, these processes are essential for converting oxygen into the energy needed for survival. Despite being a universal necessity across life forms, the mechanisms…
Introduction FUNCTION OF PANCREAS: The pancreas, a crucial yet often overlooked organ, plays a central role in maintaining the body's overall metabolic balance and digestive health. While its contribution is not as widely recognized as that of the heart or brain, the pancreas is indispensable for functions that regulate blood…
Introduction Heart valve disorders represent a group of conditions that affect the heart’s ability to pump blood efficiently, disrupting normal circulation. These conditions are significant health concerns because the heart valves play a crucial role in regulating blood flow throughout the body. In a healthy heart, four valves— the mitral,…
Introduction ARTERIES AND VEINS: The circulatory system is one of the most vital components of the human body, responsible for transporting blood, oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to every part of the body. At the heart of this system are the arteries and veins, two types of blood vessels that play…
Introduction VITILIGO CAUSES: Vitiligo is a skin disorder characterized by the gradual loss of pigment, which results in the appearance of white patches on various parts of the body. It is a condition that affects approximately 1-2% of the global population, crossing all ethnic groups, genders, and ages. While it…
Introduction Lung Cancer Lung cancer is one of the most common and deadly forms of cancer worldwide, with millions of people diagnosed each year. While smoking is a major risk factor, non-smokers can also develop the disease. Early detection plays a crucial role in improving outcomes, but recognizing lung cancer…
Introduction The lungs are vital organs responsible for breathing and gas exchange in the human body. They provide oxygen to the bloodstream and remove carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism. The health of our lungs is paramount to our overall well-being, yet many people overlook the importance of lung…
Introduction Alzheimer's disease is one of the most devastating and complex neurological disorders, affecting millions of people worldwide. It is the leading cause of dementia, characterized by a gradual and progressive decline in memory, cognitive function, and behavior. Alzheimer's not only affects the individuals who suffer from it but also…
Introduction The blood brain barrier (BBB) is one of the most fascinating and vital components of the human body. This selective barrier acts as the brain’s primary defense mechanism, regulating the passage of substances between the blood and the central nervous system (CNS). While the BBB is crucial for maintaining…
Introduction ADVANCES IN NEUROSCIENCE: Neuroscience, the study of the brain and nervous system, has seen tremendous advances over the past few decades. From the advent of powerful imaging techniques to breakthroughs in neuroplasticity, artificial intelligence (AI) applications, and gene therapy, the field is continually evolving. The quest to understand the…
Introduction The human brain is an extraordinary organ—one that controls every aspect of our physical and mental functions. From regulating basic bodily functions such as heartbeat and breathing to enabling complex thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, it is at the center of everything that makes us human. This article offers a…
Introduction Hormones are powerful chemical messengers that regulate a wide variety of processes in the body, including metabolism, growth, mood, reproduction, and immune function. Despite their crucial role in maintaining homeostasis, hormones remain relatively misunderstood by many. This article provides a comprehensive guide to hormones, their functions, types, and the…
Introduction The digestive system is one of the most complex and crucial systems in the human body. It plays a vital role in breaking down food and absorbing nutrients, which are essential for maintaining energy levels, building tissues, and supporting overall bodily functions. Without a properly functioning digestive system, the…
Introduction Bird bioacoustics: Birds are among the most vocal creatures on Earth, and their sounds—ranging from complex songs to simple calls—serve a wide range of functions essential to their survival and reproduction. The study of bird sounds, or bird bioacoustics, is a rapidly growing subfield of bioacoustics that explores how…
Introduction Human health is the foundation of a productive, fulfilling life. From the foods we eat to the exercise we do, our mental health, and our social relationships, every aspect plays a role in determining the overall quality of our health. As the world continues to confront various health challenges…
Introduction Bioacoustics is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on the study of sound production, transmission, and reception in living organisms. This growing area of research has gained increasing attention in recent years due to its significant implications in ecology, evolutionary biology, conservation, and even human health. By examining how animals,…
Introduction Neurons are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, responsible for transmitting information throughout the body. These specialized cells form the core of neural communication, enabling everything from basic bodily functions to complex thought processes. In this article, we will explore the structure and function of neurons,…
Introduction The nervous system is one of the most complex and fascinating systems in the human body, controlling and coordinating essential functions such as movement, thought, memory, sensation, and autonomic regulation of vital processes. The nervous system allows organisms to interact with their environment and maintain homeostasis by processing external…
Introduction This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of tumors, discussing their types, causes, how they are diagnosed, and the latest treatments available. We will also explore emerging research and technologies that have the potential to transform the way tumors are treated and managed. UNDERSTANDING TUMOURS: CAUSES, TYPES AND…
Introduction to Animal Kingdom The animal kingdom, scientifically designated as Kingdom Animalia, embodies an extraordinary diversity of life forms, each playing a pivotal role in sustaining Earth's intricate ecological equilibrium. Ranging from microscopic organisms to massive marine mammals, the sheer variety within this kingdom continues to intrigue evolutionary biologists, ecologists,…
What is Phylum Echinodermata ? Phylum Echinodermata, derived from the Greek words "echinos" meaning spiny, and "derma" meaning skin, represents one of the most fascinating and diverse groups of marine animals. These creatures, known for their striking symmetry, unique adaptations, and ecological importance, inhabit oceans worldwide, from shallow tidal pools…
Introduction Horseshoe crabs are fascinating marine arthropods that have existed on Earth for over 450 million years, long before the dinosaurs roamed the planet. Often referred to as "living fossils," these creatures have remained relatively unchanged through millennia. Beyond their evolutionary marvel, horseshoe crabs are vital for coastal ecosystems and…
Introduction - TRYPANOSOMA Trypanosomiasis, also known as "sleeping sickness," is caused by microscopic parasites of the species Trypanosoma brucei. It is transmitted by the tsetse fly (Glossina species), which is found only in rural Africa. Although the infection is not found in the United States, historically, it has been a…
Introduction - Phylum Arthropoda The animal kingdom is vast and incredibly diverse, with one phylum that stands out due to its sheer numbers and diversity: Arthropoda. This phylum includes familiar creatures such as insects, spiders, crustaceans, and millipedes. Arthropods make up approximately 75% of all known animal species on Earth,…
Introduction to Phylum Mollusca Phylum Mollusca, one of the largest and most diverse groups in the animal kingdom, holds a fascinating array of creatures. From the garden snail to the mighty giant squid, mollusks are an integral part of ecosystems and have played a vital role in human history and…
Understanding Invertebrates Invertebrates are a fascinating and diverse group of animals that dominate the planet in sheer numbers and variety. They are animals without backbones, accounting for over 97% of all animal species. From microscopic organisms like amoebas to complex creatures like octopuses, invertebrates play critical roles in ecosystems worldwide.…
Introduction The ocean is home to some of the most mysterious and awe-inspiring creatures, but few captivate our imagination quite like the octopus. Known for their intelligence, camouflage abilities, and otherworldly appearance, octopuses are nothing short of remarkable. One of their most intriguing features is their unique circulatory system, which…
Introduction Pearls are made by molluscs, like oysters. Pearls are small and often white but sometimes in pale colours or even black. They are often rounding, but sometimes half-round, oval, or in different shapes. Pearls are often used for jewellery. A cultured pearl is a pearl created by an oyster…
INTRODUCTION :- Gametogenesis Gametogenesis is a biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor cells undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes. Depending on the biological life cycle of the organism, gametogenesis occurs by meiotic division of diploid gametocytes into various gametes, or by mitotic division of…
INTRODUCTION :- AMOEBIASIS Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite responsible for a disease called amoebiasis. It occurs usually in the large intestine and causes internal inflammation as its name suggests (histo = tissue, lytic = destroying). 50 million people are infected worldwide, mostly in tropical countries in areas of poor…
INTRODUCTION :- WHAT IS A PARASITE A parasite is a living organism, which takes /draws its nourishment & other needs from a host; the host is an organism which supports the parasite by providing food & shelter. The study of parasites is termed as parasitology. The father of parasitology is…
Introduction SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF ANTS: Ants are extraordinary creatures, known for their complex social structures, efficient organization, and remarkable cooperative behavior. As eusocial insects, ants live in large colonies where each individual plays a specific role, ensuring the colony's survival and success. These roles are well-defined, and ants communicate, cooperate,…
Introduction SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF BEES: Bees are among the most fascinating creatures in the animal kingdom, renowned for their highly organized, cooperative social structures. As eusocial insects, bees live in large colonies with a distinct division of labor that supports the survival and thriving of the hive. The social behavior…
Introduction THE ROLE OF INVERTEBRATES IN BIODIVERSITY: Invertebrates, the animals without a backbone, make up the vast majority of species on Earth. Representing more than 95% of all animal species, they range from tiny microscopic creatures to large, visible forms like squids and crabs. While they often go unnoticed in…
Chordates and Non Chordates The animal kingdom is diverse, encompassing organisms with varied structures, functionalities, and evolutionary adaptations. One of the primary ways biologists classify animals is based on the presence or absence of specific structural features, notably the notochord. This distinction leads to the classification of animals into two…
Protozoa Locomotory Systems Most free-living protozoans move, using either cilia, flagella, or flowing cytoplasmic fingers called pseudopodia ( pseudo = G: false; podium = G: foot). The members of some species possess different locomotory systems at different stages of the life cycle or under different environmental conditions. it has become…
Introduction CILIATED PROTOZOANS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS: Ciliated protozoans are a diverse group of single-celled organisms within the kingdom Protista, known for their characteristic cilia—short, hair-like structures that cover the surface of the cell. These cilia are used for locomotion, feeding, and sensory functions. Ciliated protozoans play significant ecological roles in…
Introduction FLAGELLATED PROTOZOANS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS: Flagellated protozoans are a diverse group of single-celled organisms within the kingdom Protista that move and feed using one or more whip-like structures called flagella. These flagella allow the organisms to move through water or other liquids, and they also play a crucial role…
Introduction CORAL REEFS AND THEIR TYPES: Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and vibrant ecosystems on the planet. Often referred to as the "rainforests of the sea," they provide essential habitats for a wide array of marine life, including fish, invertebrates, and other marine organisms. Beyond their biodiversity,…
Introduction METAGENESIS IN CNIDARIANS: Metagenesis, also known as the alternation of generations, is a biological process in which an organism alternates between two distinct forms during its lifecycle. This phenomenon is particularly common in certain groups of invertebrates, including cnidarians, a diverse group of animals that includes jellyfish, corals, and…
Introduction ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF JELLYFISH: Jellyfish are captivating and ancient marine animals that have been around for over 500 million years. Despite their simplicity, they exhibit remarkable adaptations that allow them to thrive in various marine environments. Known for their gelatinous bodies and mesmerizing movement, jellyfish are members of…
Introduction THE ORIGIN OF LIFE: The question of how life began on Earth is one of the most profound and enigmatic inquiries in science. Despite decades of research, the exact process remains elusive, but scientists have developed several hypotheses that seek to explain the origins of life. This article delves…
Introduction Anatomy and Physiology of Ascaris lumbricoides: Ascaris lumbricoides is one of the most well-known parasitic nematodes (roundworms) that infects humans. It is responsible for the disease known as ascariasis, which affects millions of people worldwide, particularly in regions with poor sanitation. To understand how this parasite works, it is…
Introduction ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF LEECHES: Leeches are a fascinating group of segmented worms belonging to the class Hirudinea within the phylum Annelida. These organisms are known for their specialized adaptations and unique lifestyle, ranging from freshwater species to parasitic forms found in a variety of hosts. Although they are…
Introduction Invertebrate taxonomy is a crucial subdiscipline within the field of zoology that focuses on the classification and identification of invertebrate animals—those without a backbone. As the largest group of animals on Earth, invertebrates make up approximately 95% of all known animal species. These organisms range from microscopic entities like…
Introduction KNOCKOUT MICE AND THEIR APPLICATION: Knockout mice are genetically engineered animals in which specific genes have been inactivated or "knocked out." This tool has revolutionized the field of biomedical research, providing scientists with a way to study the effects of individual genes on development, disease, and overall physiology. By…
Introduction CELL CYCLE CONTROL IN Xenopus : The cell cycle is a highly regulated series of events that lead to cell division, ensuring the accurate distribution of genetic material to daughter cells. In multicellular organisms, the regulation of the cell cycle is critical for maintaining genomic integrity, and disruptions in…
Introduction VACCINATION STRATEGIES TO COMBAT SARS-CoV-2 : The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, has reshaped global health strategies. One of the most significant tools in controlling the spread of the virus and preventing severe disease outcomes has been the rapid development and deployment of vaccines. Vaccination strategies…
INTRODUCTION Common zoonotic diseases: Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases that are transmitted from animals to humans. These diseases are caused by a variety of pathogens including viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi, and they account for a significant portion of emerging infectious diseases. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted through direct contact…
Introduction DISEASES CAUSED BY HELMINTHS: Helminths are parasitic worms that cause a range of diseases in humans. These worms are multicellular organisms, and they belong to various classifications such as nematodes (roundworms), cestodes (tapeworms), and trematodes (flukes). Helminthic infections are common in tropical and subtropical regions, especially where sanitation is…
INTRODUCTION Filariasis and its vector: Filariasis is a serious parasitic disease that affects millions of people worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. The disease is caused by thread-like worms that live in the lymphatic system, leading to a condition known as lymphatic filariasis. It is primarily transmitted through the…
Introduction Vitamin D and it’s deficiency: Vitamin D is a vital nutrient that plays a crucial role in calcium metabolism, bone health, immune function, and overall well-being in animals. However, vitamin D deficiency is a common but often overlooked issue that can lead to significant health problems in both wild…
INTRODUCTION Malaria and its vector: Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by the Plasmodium parasite and transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Despite significant progress in controlling the disease, malaria remains a major public health issue, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. In this article,…
Introduction Dengue fever and its vector: Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne viral disease that has become a significant public health concern, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. With millions of cases reported worldwide each year, dengue fever is transmitted primarily by the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes. These vectors…
Introduction Blood and its components are often referred to as the "river of life," plays a pivotal role in maintaining the functionality of the human body. It is responsible for transporting essential nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells while removing waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea. Beyond these…
Introduction Pineal gland functions and disorders: The pineal gland, a small, pea-sized structure located deep within the brain, has long intrigued scientists and philosophers alike due to its association with the regulation of sleep and its enigmatic position in the human body. Often referred to as the "third eye," this…
Introduction Thyroid gland functions and disorders: The thyroid gland, a butterfly-shaped organ located at the base of the neck, is crucial for regulating the body's metabolism, growth, and development. Through the secretion of thyroid hormones, this small gland influences nearly every organ system in the body. Understanding the anatomy, function,…
Introduction Adrenal gland functions and disorders: The adrenal glands are small, yet powerful, endocrine organs located on top of each kidney. These glands are crucial for the production of hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including metabolism, immune response, blood pressure, and the body's response to stress. Understanding the anatomy,…
Introduction Parathyroid gland functions and disorders: The parathyroid glands are small, yet essential, structures located behind the thyroid gland in the neck. Despite their size, these glands play a critical role in regulating calcium levels in the body, which is vital for maintaining bone health, nerve function, and muscle contractions.…
Introduction Birds and their beaks: Birds are a diverse and fascinating group of animals, each species uniquely adapted to its environment. One of the most striking examples of this adaptation is the variety of beak shapes and sizes found across the bird kingdom. These beaks are not just physical features;…
Introduction Epitheliochorial Placenta Structure and Function- The epitheliochorial placenta is a unique and significant type of placental structure found in certain mammals, particularly ungulates like horses, pigs, and some primates. This form of placenta is crucial in understanding reproductive biology, maternal-fetal interactions, and the evolutionary adaptations that different species have…
Introduction The haemochorial placenta is a crucial structure in mammalian reproduction, particularly in humans and other primates. This type of placenta plays a vital role in fetal development, ensuring the transfer of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products between the mother and the developing fetus. Understanding the structure, function, and significance…
Introduction The Human Heart: Structure and Function - The human heart is a vital organ that works ceaselessly to keep us alive. It pumps blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing waste products like carbon dioxide. Understanding how the heart functions, its anatomy, and how…
INTRODUCTION The circulatory system of pigeon, like all birds, is a marvel of efficiency and specialization, enabling them to meet the high metabolic demands of flight and other aspects of their active lifestyle. This essay explores the anatomy, function, adaptations, and comparative aspects of the circulatory system in pigeons. ANATOMY…
INTRODUCTION The circulatory system of reptiles is a vital component of their physiology, enabling efficient transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout their bodies. Unlike mammals and birds, reptiles exhibit a range of adaptations in their circulatory systems that reflect their evolutionary history and ecological niche. This essay explores…
INTRODUCTION The circulatory system of amphibians, a class of vertebrates that includes frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts, is adapted for their unique dual life in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. This system ensures efficient transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout their bodies, allowing them to thrive in diverse…
INTRODUCTION The circulatory system of teleosts, or bony fish, is a marvel of efficiency and adaptation, evolved over millions of years to support their aquatic lifestyle. This system ensures the delivery of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body while removing waste products, playing a crucial role in their survival. In…
INTRODUCTION Placenta and types of placenta: The placenta is a vital organ in most mammals, including humans, that serves as a connection between the developing fetus and the mother. It facilitates the exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products between the maternal and fetal circulatory systems, providing essential support for…
INTRODUCTION Metamorphosis in insects is a fascinating biological process that showcases the remarkable adaptability and complexity of these creatures. It refers to the series of distinct developmental stages an insect undergoes during its life cycle, typically involving a transformation from egg to larva, pupa, and finally adult. This phenomenon is…
INTRODUCTION The Metamorphosis stages in lifecycle of frogs is a captivating process that showcases nature's brilliance in transforming a water-dwelling creature into a terrestrial marvel. From the initial stages of egg-laying to the emergence of a fully formed adult frog, this intricate journey encompasses various physiological and behavioral adaptations. In…
INTRODUCTION Blastula and types of blastula: The blastula is a pivotal stage in embryonic development, marking the transition from the zygote to a multicellular embryo. Characterized by a hollow, spherical structure composed of a single layer of cells, the blastula sets the stage for subsequent gastrulation, formation of coelom and…
DISSECTION OF PALAEMON (PRAWN) External features of Palaemon (Prawn) It is fresh-water prawn, which forms a highly palatable dish. Prawn is the most favourite and well-liked animal by the students. Total length : 25 to 35 cm. Shape: Spindle-shaped, elongated and bilaterally symmetrical. Colour: Pale blue or greenish it becomes…
CLASSIFICATION OF CHONDRILLA Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.) Class :- Demospongiae (Skeleton of spongin fibres or siliceous spicules which are not six-rayed.) Order :- Tetractinellida (Spicules tetraxon) Genus :- Chondrilla Habit and habitat of Chondrilla Chondrilla is a marine tetractinellid demosponge. Distribution of Chondrilla…
CLASSIFICATION OF OSCARELLA Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.) Class :- Demospongiae (Skeleton of spongin fibres or siliceous spicules which are not six-rayed.) Order :- Myxospongida (Skeleton absent.) Genus :- Oscarella Habit and habitat of Oscarella Oscarella is found in shallow water forming encrustation over…
DISSECTION OF POECILOCERUS (GRASSHOPPER) General anatomy of Poecilocerus (Grasshopper) Procedure For Dissection of poecilocerus (Grasshopper) take either preserved or freshly chloroformed grasshopper. Fix it in the dissecting dish. Cut the lateral membranes between terga and sterna. Remove carefully the cut tergal plates over thorax and head region to study the…
DISSECTION OF PERIPLANETA AMERICANA (COCKROACH) This is a common cockroach. This insect is the most suited for laboratory study due to its manageable size, abundant occurrence and being least specialized insect. It is Nocturnal and cursorial, inhabiting drain pipes and backeries. External features of periplaneta americana (Cockroach) Procedure For Dissection…
DISSECTION OF SEPIA (CUTTLE FISH) External features of Sepia (Cuttle Fish) Sepia is commonly found in sea in India. Very favourite class room specimen and very good animal tc study the nervous system. The preserved specimen is brownish in colour bluish with leathery texture. The animal can atonce be recognized…
DISSECTION OF LOLIGO (SQUID) External features For dissection of loligo (Squid)Take a nicely preserved specimen. Loligo (Squid) can be easily differentiated from Sepia by having lateral fin in the posterior region of the trunk. Study various structures in head and trunk regions. Nervous system Procedure Dissect the animal by making…
CLASSIFICATION OF EUPLECTELLA Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical) Class :- Hexactinellida (Glass sponges with siliceous spicules of triaxon or six-pointed type.) Order :- Hexasterophora (Hexaster spicule present. Amphid is absent) Genus :- Euplectella Goegraphical Distribution It is distributed near Philippines and West Indies. Habit…
Classification of Leucilla Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical)Class :- Calcarea (Calcareous spicules present)Order :- Heterocoel (Syconoid sponges with internal folds) Genus :- Leucilla Distribution It is a small solitary and marine sponge Habit and Habitat Common in Europe. Distributed from Rhode Island to Greenland.…
DISSSECTION OF PILA GLOBOSA (APPLE SNAIL) Pila Globosa is the most common and abundant gastropod, inhabiting ponds, rivers, tanks and rice-fields. It is very familiar for dissection and is also famous for its very slow movement called as snail pace. External features of Pila Globosa (Apple Snail) with shell and…
DISSECTION OF UNIO OR LAMELLIDENS External features of Unio or Lamellidens Unio is the most familiar specimen amongst laboratory dissections. Unio is found abundantly in lime-rich water and in the bottom of lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. Generally they are found half-embedded in mud or sand at the bottom. Procedure…
DISSECTION OF HIRUDINARIA GRANULOSA (LEECH) It is the common cattle leech. For studying external features, take freshly killed specimens with chloroform vapours. External features of Hirudinaria Granulosa (Leech) Number of segments : 33. Number of annuli in a typical middle segment is 5. Total length : 5 to 10 cm.…
DISSECTION OF PHERETIMA POSTHUMA (EARTHWORM) External features of pheretima posthuma (earthworm) It is common earthworm. For external features of pheretima posthuma (earthworm), living narcotised or preserved specimens can be examined. Observe and draw the following parts. Draw separately dorsal and ventral suifaces. Distinguish the dorsal suiface by median blood vessel.…
DISSECTION OF NEREIS (CLAM WORM) General Instructions for Dissection of ascaris (round worm) While dissecting the animal keep in mind the following points. Listen and follow carefully the instructions given by the teacher in your practical class. Study well about the internal structures of the animal to be dissected. Keep…
DISSECTION OF ASCARIS (ROUND WORM) General Instructions for Dissection of ascaris (round worm) While dissecting the animal keep in mind the following points. Listen and follow carefully the instructions given by the teacher in your practical class. Study well about the internal structures of the animal to be dissected. Keep…
Slide Preparation Of Coelenterate (Obelia Colony & Obelia Medusa) Obelia Obelia is colonial, mainly sedentary hydrozoan zoophyte attached to the seaweed, hills and rocks.It is mostly found in shallow water and also up to approximately 250 ft.deep. There are currently 120 known species, with more to be discovered Method for…
Slide Preparation of Porifera (Sponge and Gemmules) Introduction The body wall of sponges is supported by various minute crystalline and calcareous bodies called as spicules. These are secreted by special mesenchymal cells called scleroblasts. Spicules provide taxonomic characters and are classified according to the axas and rays called as axon,…
Classification of Paramecium Phylum :- Protozoa → Unicellular Sub-Phylum :- Ciliophora → Ciliary movement in all stages Class :- Ciliata → Cilia present throughout life Sub - Class :- Euciliata → Cytopharynx, contractile vacuole, mega and micronucleus present Order :- Holotricha → Equal cilia. Sub-order :- Trichostomata → Mouth leads…
Classification of Euglena Phylum :- Protozoa (Unicellular) Subphylum :- Sarcomastigophora (Cilia absent, locomotion by pseudopodia) Class :- Phytomastigophora (Chromatophores present in majority) Order :- Euglenida (Larger forms with one or more flagella) Genus :- Euglena General Study of Euglena Euglena is free-living and solitary. It occurs in stagnant water of…
Classification of Paramecium Phylum :- Protozoa (Unicellular) Sub-Phylum :- Ciliophora (Ciliary movement in all stages). Class :- Ciliata (Cilia present throughout life.) Sub Class :- Euciliata (Cytopharynx, contractile vacuole, mega and micronucleus present Order :- Holotricha (Equal cilia) Sub-order :- Trichostomata (Mouth leads into cytopharynx.) Family :- Paramecidae (Oral groove…
Classification of Sycon or Scypha Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical). Class :- Calcarea (Calcareous spicules present). Order :- Heterocoe Syconoid sponges with internal folds. Genus :- Sycon Habit and habitat Sycon or Scypha is a small, solitary or colonial marine sponge found in shallow…
Classification of Leucosolenia Phylum :- Porifera (Pore bearing, cellular grade, asymmetrical or radially symmetrical). Class :- Calcarea (Calcareous spicules present). Order :- Homocoela (Canal system of ascon type). Genus :- Leucosolenia Colony of Leucosolenia Habit and habitat Marine colonial sponge found in shallow waters below tidemark on seashore rocks, having…
Classification of Giardia Phylum :- ProtozoaSubclass :- SarcomastigophoraClass :- ZoomastigophoreaOrder :- DiplomonadidaGenus :- Giardia Comments on Giardia It is live in the intestine of man as an endoparasite and cause Giardiasis It has two nuclei and bears four flagella on either side of the body Its fee on vitamins and…
STUDY OF ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA CLASSIFICATION OF ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA Phylum :- protozoaSub phylum :- SarcomastigophoreClass :- RhizopodaOrder :- LobosaGenus :- EntamoebaSpecies :- histolytica Distribution Entamoeba histolytica is worldwide in distribution, but its prevalence is greater in tropics and subtropics than in the temperate zones. It has been reported that incidence of…
Study of Leishmania - Classification, Life Cycle and Mode of Transmission Classification of Leishmania Phylum : ProtozoaSubphylum : SarcomastigophoraClass : ZoomastigophoreaOrder : KinetoplastidaFamily : TrypanosomatidaeGenus : Leishmania Distribution:- It is found as an intracellular parasite in Leucocytes and cells of liver, spleen, bone marrow, etc. Morphology and Life Cycle of…
Circulatory System Of Branchiostoma Blood Vascular System or Circulatory system of Branchiostoma is of the closed type, well developed and peculiar in many ways. Blood is colourless due to lack of any respiratory pigment and corpuscles. Besides blood vessels it also occurs in some lymph spaces such as in metapleural…
Blood Vascular System or circulatory system of Herdmania is well developed and greatly modified. It includes : (i) Heart and pericardium, (ii) blood vessels, and (iii) blood. Heart and pericardium The pericardium is a noncontractile, elongated and transparent tube about 7 cm long and 3 mm wide, running obliquely below…
Digestive system of Herdmania includes the alimentary canal and the digestive glands. Alimentary canal Digestive tract of Herdmania is coiled and complete, beginning at the mouth and terminating at the anus. The following parts form the alimentary canal. Mouth The mouth or branchial aperture opens on the top of the…
Introduction :- Digestive system of Balanoglossus Nestled within the enigmatic phylum Hemichordata lies a remarkable marine invertebrate known as Balanoglossus. Despite its seemingly humble appearance, this creature harbors a digestive system that captivates the curiosity of researchers and enthusiasts alike. Within the context of its evolutionary significance and biological uniqueness,…
Introduction :- What is wildlife safari Wildlife safaris, a thrilling and immersive journey into the heart of nature, offer a unique blend of adventure and conservation. These experiences provide enthusiasts with the opportunity to witness the untamed beauty of the animal kingdom in its natural habitat. Beyond the exhilarating encounters…
Introduction: How do birds migrate across continents with such precision? In the expansive canvas of the natural world, few phenomena rival the annual migration of birds across continents. It is a spectacle that encapsulates the essence of precision and navigational prowess. From the soaring Arctic Terns charting pole-to-pole courses to…
Our journey unfolds as we unveil the top 10 most venomous ocean animals, creatures that have mastered the art of wielding venom as both a weapon and a means of securing their place in the intricate web of marine life.
Introduction Comparative anatomy of the nervous system in vertebrates is a complex and essential network in the bodies of vertebrates, playing a crucial role in coordinating and controlling various physiological processes. While the general structure and function of the nervous system are conserved across vertebrates, there are notable differences that…
Introduction Comparative anatomy of the excretory systems in vertebrates serve a crucial function in maintaining internal homeostasis by eliminating metabolic waste and regulating the body's water and ion balance. From the intricate nephrons of mammals to the nephridia of invertebrates and the remarkable adaptations of aquatic vertebrates, each group has…
Introduction The comparative anatomy of vertebrate respiratory systems showcase a stunning variety of adaptations, each suited to their specific environments and needs. From the gills of fish to the lungs of mammals and the specialized air sacs of birds, these structures have evolved to maximize oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide…
Introduction The comparative anatomy of digestive systems in vertebrates are a testament to the incredible diversity and adaptability found in the animal kingdom. From the simplistic yet efficient systems of fish to the highly specialized structures of mammals, each group has evolved unique digestive adaptations to suit their dietary needs…
Introduction Fish culture, commonly known as fish farming or aquaculture, is a practice as old as human civilization itself. Today, it stands at the forefront of efforts to meet the world's growing demand for seafood while conserving our natural fisheries. In this comprehensive exploration, we dive into the fascinating world…
Introduction Animal genetics : The animal kingdom is a diverse and complex realm, teeming with a wide array of species, each uniquely adapted to its environment. Behind the incredible diversity of animals lies a hidden world of genetic codes, a blueprint that determines their traits, behaviors, and evolutionary history. Animal…
Introduction Immunization, a cornerstone of modern medicine, has revolutionized healthcare by harnessing the incredible power of the immune system to protect animals, including humans, against a wide range of pathogens. In this article, we will explore the principles of immunization, its significance in the animal kingdom, and how it has…
Introduction Hyperthyroidism is a medical condition that results from the overproduction of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland (opposite of hypothyroidism). Thyroid hormones play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, making hyperthyroidism a significant concern in the field of zoology and endocrinology. In this article, we will explore…
Introduction Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine disorder that affects not only humans but a wide range of animal species across the animal kingdom. This condition has significant implications for the health and survival of many creatures. In the field of zoology, understanding hypothyroidism in animals is essential for studying their…
Introduction Growth hormone deficiency (GHD) is a medical condition that occurs when the pituitary gland fails to produce an adequate amount of growth hormone (GH). While this condition primarily affects children, it can also manifest in adults. In this article, we will explore the causes, effects, diagnosis, and treatment of…
Introduction Bioluminescence, the enchanting natural phenomenon of organisms emitting light, has fascinated biologists, oceanographers, and nature enthusiasts for centuries. In the depths of the oceans and the dark corners of the rainforest, countless creatures employ this captivating ability for various purposes. In this comprehensive exploration of bioluminescence, we delve into…
Introduction Biomimicry, the art and science of drawing inspiration from nature's designs and processes to solve human challenges, has been a source of inspiration for countless innovations. While biomimicry encompasses a wide spectrum of natural wonders, one of its most profound sources of inspiration is the animal kingdom. From the…
Introduction Strength in the animal kingdom takes many forms, from sheer muscle power to extraordinary adaptations. In this exploration, we embark on a journey to discover the strongest animal on Earth. Our quest will take us through land, sea, and air, showcasing the remarkable feats of strength that have evolved…
Introduction The Most Venomous Snake in the World: In the world of reptiles, snakes have captivated human fascination for centuries. Among these serpentine creatures, there exists a group that strikes terror into the hearts of many—the venomous snakes. While numerous venomous species exist, one stands out as the most venomous…
Introduction The wolf spider, known for its agility, hunting prowess, and maternal instincts, is a fascinating arachnid that prowls in the shadows of the natural world. These solitary and often misunderstood creatures belong to the family Lycosidae and are found on nearly every continent, showcasing remarkable adaptability and diversity. In…
Introduction The Human Genome Project (HGP) is a monumental scientific endeavor that has left an indelible mark on the landscape of genetics, biology, and medicine. Spanning over a decade, this international research initiative aimed to unravel the complete sequence of the human genome, which serves as the genetic blueprint for…
Introduction At the heart of gene and cell therapy lies a fundamental principle: the modification and manipulation of genes and cells to combat diseases and disorders. This groundbreaking field represents a radical departure from traditional medicine, where treatments primarily address symptoms rather than root causes. The Power of Genes: Gene…
Introduction Coral reefs are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on our planet, renowned for their vibrant colours and intricate structures. These underwater wonders serve as a vital habitat for a staggering array of marine species and play a significant role in supporting coastal communities. Coral reefs are often referred to…
Introduction Endangered Reptiles and Conservation Efforts: In the intricate tapestry of life on Earth, reptiles hold a unique and ancient place. For millions of years, they have navigated the planet's diverse ecosystems with a blend of tenacity and grace, adapting to a wide array of habitats and playing essential roles…
Introduction Endangered Birds and Their Conservation: Birds are renowned for their beauty, song, and remarkable diversity. However, many bird species face an alarming threat—extinction. Habitat loss, climate change, poaching, and other factors have pushed numerous bird species to the brink. In this article, we explore the world of endangered birds,…
INTRODUCTION Endangered Mammals: Conservation Challenges: Mammals are among the most iconic and diverse group of animals on our planet, ranging from the towering elephants of Africa to the elusive snow leopards of the Himalayas. Yet, despite their ecological significance and cultural importance, many mammal species are teetering on the brink…
INTRODUCTION Understanding the Enigma of Animal Behavior: The world of animals is a captivating tapestry of behaviors, each thread woven with precision, adapted for survival, and fine-tuned over eons of evolution. From the intricate dances of honeybees to the coordinated hunting tactics of killer whales, animal behavior is a subject…
Introduction The Intricate world of Animal Intelligence: The animal kingdom is a treasure trove of diversity, each species adapted to its unique environment and lifestyle. Beyond their physical attributes, animals possess a wealth of mental faculties that have intrigued scientists and enthusiasts for centuries. Cognitive science, the interdisciplinary study of…
Introduction Birdwatching: A Symphony of Nature's Beauty and Wonder often called "birding" by enthusiasts, is a passion that transcends boundaries and connects people to the captivating world of avian life. It is a hobby that blends scientific exploration, artistic appreciation, and a profound connection with the natural world. As we…
Introduction Wildlife Conservation Travel and Ecotourism: The allure of exploring our planet's diverse ecosystems and encountering majestic wildlife has been a source of fascination for generations. However, with the growing awareness of environmental issues and the importance of conserving endangered species, a new form of travel has emerged: wildlife conservation…
Role and Importance of Zoology in Medicine Defining Zoology and Medicine Zoology is the scientific discipline that focuses on the study of animals, encompassing their biology, behavior, physiology, and evolution. Medicine, on the other hand, is the field dedicated to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases in humans. While…
Introduction In the vast realm of microscopic life, few creatures have captured the imagination of scientists and enthusiasts alike as much as tardigrades. These minuscule, water-dwelling animals, often referred to as "water bears" or "moss piglets," belong to a phylum called Tardigrada. Despite their diminutive size, tardigrades possess extraordinary survival…
Endangered Species Conservation : Preserving Biodiversity for Future Generations Introduction The Earth is home to a remarkable tapestry of life, with millions of species coexisting in a delicate balance that sustains our planet's ecosystems. However, this intricate web of biodiversity faces an unprecedented threat: extinction. Human activities, such as habitat…
Introduction :- Zoology as a Career Zoology, the scientific study of animals and their behavior, is a captivating field that offers a plethora of exciting career opportunities for those with a passion for the natural world. Whether you are intrigued by the diverse world of insects, fascinated by the complexity…
Role of Zoology in Ecosystem Conservation and Understanding Introduction Role of Zoology in Ecosystem, the study of animals and their behavior, plays a critical role in our understanding of ecosystems and their conservation. Ecosystems are intricate webs of life where every species, from the smallest microorganisms to the largest mammals,…
INTRODUCTION Patau’s syndrome, known as Trisomy 13, unveils the intricate world of genetic anomalies and their impact on human development. Named after Dr. Klaus Patau, the syndrome involves an extra copy of chromosome 13, disrupting the usual genetic blueprint. This disruption triggers a series of events that shape the physical…
INTRODUCTION Down syndrome causes and risk: Down syndrome also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic condition caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21. It is one of the most common genetic disorders, affecting approximately 1 in 700 babies born worldwide. This article aims to explore…
INTRODUCTION Nutrition in Protozoa involves various modes of feeding. Protozoa are a diverse group of single-celled eukaryotic microorganisms that play significant ecological roles and exhibit diverse nutritional strategies. They can be found in various environments, including freshwater, marine habitats, and soil. Understanding the nutritional requirements and mechanisms of nutrient acquisition…
INTRODUCTION Phylum Platyhelminthes, commonly known as flatworms, is a diverse group of invertebrates that exhibit unique characteristics and adaptations. This phylum consists of various species, including parasitic and free-living flatworms. In this article, we will explore the characteristics of Phylum Platyhelminthes, their classification, adaptations, ecological roles, and provide examples of…
INTRODUCTION Phylum Cnidaria encompasses a diverse group of marine organisms, including jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, and hydroids. These organisms share several characteristic features that define the phylum. In this article, we will explore the characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria, its classification, unique adaptations, ecological significance, and provide examples of organisms within…
INTRODUCTION The lateral line system is a remarkable sensory adaptation found in most fish species, allowing them to perceive and navigate through their aquatic environments effectively. This sensory system comprises a network of mechanoreceptive organs, called neuromasts, distributed along the fish's body. Through the lateral line system, fish can detect…
INTRODUCTION Evolution is the fundamental process that has shaped the diversity of life on Earth. It occurs through two distinct but interconnected mechanisms: microevolution and macroevolution. Microevolution refers to small-scale genetic changes within populations, while macroevolution encompasses larger-scale changes leading to the emergence of new species or higher taxonomic groups.…
INTRODUCTION Respiration is a fundamental process in living organisms, providing oxygen for energy production and removing carbon dioxide as a waste product. To facilitate efficient oxygen transport, various animals have evolved specialized molecules called respiratory pigments. These pigments exhibit distinct structures and functions across different phylogenetic groups, enabling organisms to…
INTRODUCTION Coloration plays a crucial role in the lives of many animals, serving diverse purposes such as camouflage, communication, courtship, and warning signals. One remarkable mechanism that enables animals to achieve stunning color changes is the presence of specialized pigment-containing cells called chromatophores. Chromatophores possess the extraordinary ability to alter…
Introduction Osmoregulation is a critical physiological process that enables organisms to regulate the balance of water and solutes within their bodies. This essential mechanism allows animals to adapt to and survive in a wide range of environments with varying salinity levels, from freshwater habitats to highly saline marine ecosystems. Osmoregulation…
Introduction The animal kingdom is a realm of diverse creatures, each with its own unique adaptations for survival and communication. Among the myriad forms of communication, pheromones stand out as remarkable chemical signals that play a crucial role in inter- and intra-species interactions. In this article, we delve into the…
Introduction The animal kingdom is a diverse and fascinating realm, encompassing a wide array of creatures. One way to categorize animals is based on their structural characteristics, which leads to the classification of vertebrates and invertebrates. In this article, we will delve into the key differences between these two groups,…
What is Zoology ? Zoology, often referred to as the science of animals, is a branch of biology that delves into the intricate world of animal life. It explores their structure, behavior, evolution, ecology, and interactions with their environments. From microscopic organisms like protozoans to the majestic blue whale, zoology…
INTRODUCTION Development of C. elegans begins when a fertilized egg undergoes a series of cell divisions to form a multicellular embryo. C.elegans (Caenorhabditis elegans) is a roundworm that has been extensively studied as a model organism in developmental biology. It has a relatively simple anatomy and a fully sequenced genome,…
FUNCTIONS OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM The ER enables the movement of materials from one area of the cell to another, constituting the circulatory system of the cell. Desmotubule formation: Desmotubules are tubular extensions that stretch through plasmodesmata to connect the ER in two adjacent plant cells. Support – The cytoskeleton, which…
STRUCTURE OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM The endoplasmic reticulum is often the biggest membrane in eukaryotic cells, forming a complex network of interconnecting membrane sacs or channels. It makes up 30 to 60 percent of a cell's entire membrane. Ribosomes may or may not be linked to the endoplasmic reticulum's outer membrane.…
Introduction and History Endoplasmic reticulum, the huge organelle, is made up of tubules and membranous sheets that extend across the entire cell and begin close to the nucleus. Many of the products made by a cell are manufactured and secreted by the endoplasmic reticulum, which also bundles them. One of…
The equation derived based on the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium concept is called the Hardy Weinberg law. In this particular equation, p is represented as the dominant allele’s frequency and q is the representation of the recessive allele’s frequency. This is explained with an example to conclude a Hardy Weinberg equation. Consider a single locus with the presence of only two alleles namely A and a.
The binomial system classifies organisms into groups at various hierarchic levels, on the basis of easily observable and shared morphological features like shape, number and position of limbs etc. in a descending order of group size. As the word binomial suggests, the name of a species is made up of two parts: one indicating the genus and indicating the species. Binomial nomenclature means “two part name” or “system of two part names”.Which name must be used in case of name conflicts How scientific literature must cite names
INTRODUCTION • Plasmodium (Malarial Parasite) belongs to the subphylum Sporozoan of the phylum Protozoa. All sporozoites are parasites. They are intracellular or extracellular parasites of both vertebrates and invertebrates. • Among sporozoans, Plasmodium is the best known and most important species that causes malaria fever. Of these, about 60 species are known among…
INTRODUCTION Environmental pollution is defined as the contamination of air, water, or food in such a manner as to cause real or potential harm to human health or well-being, or to damage or harm nonhuman nature without justification. Pollution is an undesired change in the physical, chemical, or biological properties…
INTRODUCTION Biotic factors and abiotic factors are two types of factors that have an influence on ecosystem. Biotic factors are the living factors that have an influence on ecosystem. Organisms do not exist alone in nature but in a matrix of other organisms of many species. Many species in an…
INTRODUCTION Noise pollution, or noise disturbance, is annoying or excessive noise that can affect the activity or balance of human or animal life. Most of the world's external noise sources are primarily caused by machinery, transportation systems, cars, planes and trains. External noise is summarized in the term environmental noise.…
INTRODUCTION All the living organisms of an ecosystem form a single biotic component, the community or biotic community (communities of the environment). All the organisms of a community live together, share same habitat, influence each other's life directly or indirectly and have reached a survival level within a given radiant…
INTRODUCTION Cells of immune system and the immune system protects multicellular organisms from pathogens attack.Highly adaptable, it defends the body against invaders as tiny as (~30 nm), intracellular virus that causes polio and as large as the giant parasitic kidney worm Dioctophyme renale. These invading pathogens needs to be detected…
INTRODUCTION - BIOSYNTHESIS OF NUCLEOTIDE Nucleotides have a variety of important functions in all cells. They are the precursors of DNA and RNA. They are essential carriers of chemical energy—a role primarily of ATP and to some extent GTP. They are components of the cofactors NAD, FAD, Sadenosylmethionine, and coenzyme…
INTRODUCTION - MECHANISM OF ENZYME CATALYSIS The enzymatic catalysis of reactions is essential to living systems. Under biologically relevant conditions, uncatalyzed reactions tend to be slow—most biological molecules are quite stable in the neutral-pH, mild-temperature, aqueous environment inside cells. Furthermore, many common chemical processes are unfavorable or unlikely in the…
INTRODUCTION CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES AND ENZYME KINETIC Enzymes are central to every biochemical process. Acting in organized sequences, they catalyze the hundreds of stepwise reactions that degrade nutrient molecules, conserve and transform chemical energy, and make biological macromolecules from simple precursors. The study of enzymes has immense practical importance. In…
INTRODUCTION ENERGY RICH BONDS, ENERGY TRANSDUCER, ISOMERISM AND RESONANCE A relevant reaction is one that makes use of an available substrate and converts it to a useful product. However, even a potentially relevant reaction may not occur. Some chemical transformations are too slow (have activation energies that are too high)…
INTRODUCTION PROTEIN SYNTHESIS REGULATION Of the 4,000 or so genes in the typical bacterial genome, or the 20,000 genes in the human genome, only a fraction are expressed in a cell at any given time. Some gene products are present in very large amounts: the elongation factors required for protein…
INTRODUCTION BIOSYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACID, CHOLESTROL AND MEMBRANE LIPID Lipids play a variety of cellular roles, some only recently recognized. They are the principal form of stored energy in most organisms and major constituents of cellular membranes. Specialized lipids serve as pigments (retinal, carotene), cofactors (vitamin K), detergents (bile salts),…
Introduction This article includes comprehensive information on the causes of extinction of wildlife and how to conserve it. Each ecosystem on land and in water contains a variety of living things. While fish, some insects, and small plants dwell in the aquatic ecosystem, cattle, plants, trees, and other living things…
INTRODUCTION Energy flow in environment is the important function in the ecosystem. The storage of the energy in the ecosystem is based on two basic laws of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics states that when energy is converted from one form into another, energy is neither created nor destroyed.…
INTRODUCTION Abiotic and biotic factors or components are present in environment of an organism. The abiotic factors includes the atmosphere(air), hydrosphere (water), and lithosphere( land including soil).The abiotic factors are characterized by physical and chemical factors such as light, temperature, rainfall, pressure, pH, the content of oxygen and other gases.…
INTRODUCTION Environment and biosphere: Every living organism has its own surrounding, medium of environment to which it interacts and is adapted to it. The environment is the sum total of physical or abiotic and biotic conditions influencing the organisms. The life supporting environment of planet earth is biosphere. The biosphere…
INTRODUCTION Tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes are important regulatory genes which encode proteins regulating transitions in and out of the cell cycle and which also have a role in the gateway to terminal differentiation. Defects in tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes result in uncontrolled cell division, which leads to cancer.…
INTRODUCTION Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the most common sexually transmitted disease worldwide with the highest prevalence in young women and men. Most sexually active individuals of both sexes will acquire a genital HPV infection at some point in life. While most HPV infections resolve spontaneously within two years, the…
Aquatic adaptations occur in those animals which live in water habitat, viz., fresh, brackish or sea water. They are called aquatic animals or hydrocoles. Based upon the phylogenetic history of the aquatic animals, following two types of hydrocoles have been recognised
INTRODUCTION Cancer, also called malignancy, is an abnormal growth of cells. Cancer is more than 100 types, including breast cancer, skin cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, and lymphoma. Cancer cells are uncontrolled division of cells. Conversion of normal cell into cancerous cell is called transformation. And the cell is called…
The idea of adaptation maintains that organisms (animals and plants) are structurally and functionally designed for meeting the needs of life in the habitats in which they live. Thus, adaptations include adjustments by which an organism accommodates itself to its environment. These may occur by natural selection.
The aerial adaptations are concerned with the flight. The flight is a form of locomotion in the air under which the body has to be firstly prevented from falling down and secondly moved forwards, the speedier the better. Thus, aerial adaptations must include modifications in the animals body for reducing the weight of the body and also for the formation of organs capable of executing the flight.
TYPES OF TAXONOMY -Chemotaxonomy, also called chemosystematics, is to classify and identify organisms according to confirmable differences and similarities in their biochemical compositions. In a nutshell, the biological classification of plants and animals based on similarities and differences in biochemical composition.How scientific literature must cite names
A Taxonomic key is a device, which when properly constructed and used, enables a user to identify an organism.In lifesciences, an identification key is a printed or computer-aided device that aids the identification of biological entities, such as plants, animals, fossils, microorganisms, and pollen grains.How names are correctly established in the frame of bionomial nomenclature Which name must be used in case of name conflicts How scientific literature must cite names
Mode is the value of the variable which occurs most frequently in a distribution. Mode is also positional average which can be located by inspection.
Aortic Arches in Vertebrates Basic embryonic plan. In a typical vertebrates embryo, the major arterial channels include a ventral aorta, a dorsal aorta and usually 6 pairs of aortic arches connecting ventral aorta with the dorsal aorta.
The Chondrichthyes, also called elasmobranchii, comprise sharks, rays, skates, chimaeras, etc. Fishes are essentially aquatic and jaw-bearing true vertebrates. This class is specially known for their unimaginable number (about 40,000 species) and bewildering forms.
The Gnathostomata includes all vertebrates with upper and lower jaws. It comprises a wide range of animals, from fish to the various tetrapod classes, which have in turn been derived from a fish or fish-like ancestor. An entirely satisfactory classification of fishes is not easy to construct, because of the incompleteness of several parts of the fossil record, and the consequent lack of connecting links.
Viruses are very small submicroscopic biological entities which though lack plasma membrane and metabolic machinery. Viruses require some host cell that is they are obligate cellular parasites of either bacteria, plants or animals. There genetic material is can be RNA or DNA.
Crossopterygian, (subclass Crossopterygii), any member of a group of primitive, lobe-finned, bony fishes believed to have given rise to the amphibians and all other land vertebrates.
Arithmetic mean is defined as the quantity obtained by adding together all the given observations and by dividing this total by the number of items.
Mean, median and mode all three are Central Tendency or Averages. The Arithmetic mean lies under Mathematical Average and the other two Median and Mode are types of Positional Averages. A measure of central tendency is a typical value around which the figures congregate". The value of central tendency or average always lies between the minimum and maximum values.
A disease in which cells divide abnormally and destroy body tissues. Three classes of genes are responsible for the onset of cancer. First one is proto oncogene the normally promotes cell growth. After mutation proto-oncogene changes into oncogene whose products are excessively active in growth promotion.
Holocephali (Gr. Holos = entire + kephale = head), is a very small ancient group of highly specialized marine fishes. It comprises of rat-tailed fishes. They appeared first in the lower Jurassic and at present, are represented by a few marine genera only. It includes the only cartilaginous fishes having fleshy opercular covering of the gills.
With special features of their own, the Dipnoi combine characteristics in which they resemble different groups of fishes as well as Amphibia. AFFINITIES OF DIPNOI
The origin and evolution of Dipnoi remains problematic due to diverse opinions. They combine characteristics in which they resemble almost all the other groups of fishes as well as Amphibia. Fossil primitive Dipnoi (e.g. Diptems), shows geater similarity with fossil crossopterygians (e.g. Osteolepis), than do their living members.
The earliest known vertebrates to appear in fossil record were jawless primitive fishlike animals collectively known as the ostracoderms, and placed under the class Ostracodermi. They resembled the present day cyclostomes (lampreys and hagfishes) in many respects and together with them, constitute a special group of jawless vertebrates, the Agnatha.
Adult cyclostomes are too specialized or too degenciative in many respect. It is probable that many adult characteristics are adaptations for parasitic mode of feeding. Some of their specialized features are SPECIALIZED AND DEGENERATED CHARACTERS OF CYCLOSTOMATES
We shall now consider the origin of the earlier chordate ancestors of vertebrates. That the chordates have originated from the invertebrates is not doubted by most zoologists now-a-days. Since the earlier chordate ancestors were all soft bodied forms, they left no fossil remains to give us clues as to origin of chordata. Therefore, the only basis for judging the origin of the group comes from the resemblances between the lower chordates (protochordates and the invertebrates).
The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN or ICZN Code) is a widely accepted convention in zoologythat rules the formal scientific naming of organisms treated as animals. The rules principally regulate: How names are correctly established in the frame of bionomial nomenclature Which name must be used in case of name conflicts How scientific literature must cite names
Polymorphism is most apparent when it affects a visible or behavioral phenotype, but is not at all restricted to such traits. R. Lewontin and J. Hubby, in 1966, undertook the first extensive analysis of protein polymorphisms in natural population of Drosophila pseudoobscura by subjecting extracts of individual flies to get electrophoresis and observing the rates of migration of various proteins, which represented 18 gene loci.
New species form by speciation, in which an ancestral population splits into two or more genetically distinct descendant populations. Speciation involves reproductive isolation of groups within the original population and accumulation of genetic differences between the two groups.
The categorization and maintenance of species records is important for science and conservation. For identifying an individual species, typically scientists will first consider Biological Species Concept, then descent from common ancestry and genotypic and phenotypic cohesion. Species concepts are still subject to debate.
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological population over successive generation. Molecular evolution is change in the sequence of molecule of cell. Evolutionary genetics is study where how change in genes leads to change. Molecular markers have ability to detect genetic variation. TRENDS IN EVOLUTION
LARVAL FORMS OF ECHINODERMS :- Echinoderm larva is strikingly bilaterally symmetrical in marked contrast to radially symmetrical adult. It swims about by means of a ciliated band, which may be complicated by a number of short or long slender projection or arms from the body wall. Based upon the nature and position of the arms or their absence, lame of different classes of Echinodermata may distinguished.
LARVAL FORMS OF MOLLUSCA :- Molluscan life histories do not perfectly correspond with taxonomy, but in general it is true that the archaeogastropods and the bivalves begin life as a trochophore and rapidly pass on to a veliger. There are different types of molluscan larvae according to the importance of the pelegic phase and amount of planktonic food taken. G. Thorson (1950) recognised three ecological types of larvae in Mollusca.
LARVAL FORMS OF CRUSTACEA :- Crustaceans show both direct and indirect development. In direct development (e.g„ Palaemon, crayfish), the adult is attained by progressive growth and differentiation of the embryo, so that the newly hatched young resembles the parents in general structure.
LARVAL FORMS OF TREMATODA, CESTODA AND ANNELIDA :- The trematods or flukes are either external or internal parasites, the cestodes or tap worms are internal parasites. The termatoda class includes three order . The fasciola hepatica which is an example of order digenea have mainly 5 larval forms (i) miracidium (ii) sporocyst (ii) redia (iv) Cercaria (v) metacercaria.
Nervous system in mollusca has a well developed nervous system. It also bears paired ganglia, nerves and connectives. One important aspect is there that a Circumentric ring is formed by ganglia. A pair of cerebral ganglia (masses of nerve cell bodies) innervate the head, mouth, and associated sense organs. NERVOUS SYSTEM IN MOLLUSCA
NERVOUS SYSTEM IN ARTHROPODA is as advance as in Annelida. There is dorsal brain again connected with nerve ring to ventrae nerve cord. The arthropod nervous system consists of a dorsal brain and a ventral, ganglionated longitudinal nerve cord (primitively paired) from which lateral nerves extend in each segment.
The advanced nervous system in annelids is generally compare with coelenterates. The well developed nervous system can be seen here in form of a pair of cerebral ganglia (brain) and a double ventral nerve cord. This ventral nerve cord bears ganglia and lateral nerve in each segment as annelids are true segmented animals.
NERVOUS SYSTEM OF COELENTERATE AND ECHINODERM is not complex. Hydra and jelly fish possesses diffused nervous system, diffused nervous system is most primitive form of nervous system. Nerve cells are distributed beneath the outer epidermis. Brain is absent though there can be concentrated neuron present locally and ganglia are present.
Regulation of osmotic pressure of an organism body fluid is refer to as osmoregulation. It allow to maintain balance of water content, fluid content and electrolytes. Hence due to osmoregulation body neither become too dilute nor become too concentrated. Right concentration of solute and amount of water must be maintain by any aquatic [fresh or marine] and terrestrial organisms. It can be mostly achieved by excretion.
EXCRETION IN HIGHER TERRESTRIAL INVERTEBRATES :- Excretory system regulates the amount of nitrogenous material, inorganic salts and water content in the blood. Both cockroach and earthworm are terrestrial in habitat their excretion is discuss in detail.
EXCRETION IN HIGHER AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES :- Process by which nitrogenous waste produce during metabolism is removed is known as excretion. Some animals such hydra, echinoderms and other may not posses proper excretory organs the reason is quite clear that they are aquatic and it is supposed that nitrogenous material may be diffuse out of there body through their body surface.
EXCRETION IN LOWER INVERTEBRATES :- Every organism possess different mechanisms, organs and different excretory product. For example porifera and hydra can perform excretion through body surface where as platyhelminthes possess a specialised cells known as flame cells.
ORGANS AND MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION IN HIGHER INVERTEBRATES :- There are generally three common ways through which invertebrates can perform the process of respiration. These are cutaneous respiration which is mainly performed by lower invertebrates and annelids other is respiration through trachea and gills.
ORGANS AND MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION IN LOWER INVERTEBRATES :- In terms of biochemistry respiration is chemical reaction which occur in all living cell that provides energy after breakdown of glucose. Now respiration can be divided into two categories first aerobic respiration and other is anaerobic respiration.
PATTERN OF FEEDING AND DIGESTION IN HIGEHER INVERTEBRATES :- There are various mechanism for capturing and feeding over prey or food these are as follow Leeches generally feed over the fluid and soft tissue by piercing and then sucking from their host and simply absorbs the blood from the prey or host
PATTERN OF FEEDING AND DIGESTION IN LOWER INVERTEBRATES :- Every organism needs energy to perform its basic metabolic function. This energy can be obtain from food and sun. As sun is a universal source of energy but only autotrophic organism can obtain energy from sun.
The Ectoprocta are minute, sessile, colonial, unsegmented coelomate animals. Provided by the circular or cresentic lophophore, a u-shaped alimentary canal with anus opening near the mouth but outside of lophophore. Usually posses free swimming larva but without nephridia or circulatory system.
The Entoprocta or Endoprocta are group of small sessile aquatic animals. In which the body cavity is believed to be pseudocoel. They were formerly include in the phylum Bryozoa which however are true coelomate animals.
The Phoronida, brachiopod and Ectoprocta are collectively called as lophophorates coelomates because they all posses lophophore.
The word Rotifera is derived from latin meaning wheel barrier. They are commonly known as “wheel animalcules” as they are rotating wheel like structures
Hydrostatic movement occur when dominantly muscles are involved in their movement many organism show such kind of movement including Hydra, Earthworm, Leeches and Echinoderms.
LOCOMOTION IN PROTOZOA :- Moving ones body is an essential need of any organism. Some organism are sessile while other moves at very high speed. Some organisms moves very slowly such as amoeba or euglena where as other can move fastest example leopard.
The word coelom describes the body cavity that is internal space. But there can be difference in coelom true coelom will always be fluid filled lying between outer bodywall and inner digestive tube. It arises between two layers of embryonic mesoderm and consist of most of the visceral organs.
Metazoans can be define as multicellular organisms or as cellular animal or more accurately simply as animals.They are holozoic multicellular organisms.